Bruno Nettl (3)

Chapter 2

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL RESOURCES OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

The publications of the field of ethnomusicology have appeared in the books and periodicals of a wide variety of disciplines. Since ethnomusicology has existed as a separate field, with its own Society, journals, and bibliographies for a relatively short time, the bibliographer of this field must be able and willing to work in the areas of general musicology , anthropology, folklore, and other fields. Moreover, a great deal of important source material for the music of the world's cultures appears in publications dealing not with music per se, but with various aspects of culture and language, and these must be identified by bibliographically unconventional means.

The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the student with the tools for bibliographic location of ethnomusicological materials, and to review briefly those publications and authors with which each student of ethnomusicology should have at least an acquaintance.

There is no book which could be called the ethnomusicologists' Bible, and perhaps this is fortunate, for orthodoxy is not a good thing for a young discipline. Nor is there a standard encyclopedic work whose authority towers over the rest. Instead, there are a number of general books and articles which have attempted to survey all or a selection of the materials which comprise the field, each in a sense a pioneer work, in spite of the fact that the earliest of them antedates the latest by some fifty years. Perhaps the most useful of the general books is Ethnomusicology (3rd edition, 1959), by Kunst, first published in 1955, the main asset of which is its voluminous bibliography.

The text part of the book is a solid if somewhat uneven survey and history of ethnomusicology. It contains a good deal of advice based on the author's thorough experiences in Indonesia, but its point of view is largely the result of Kunst's own interest in musical instruments and in scales. Although a product of the 1950's, the point of view is essentially similar to that of the German musicologists of the 1920's, Stumpf and Hornbostel.

Kunst's Ethnomusicology also contains a section devoted to “Training Possibilities for Ethnomusicologists” which, while its accuracy is impaired by its tendency toward obsolesence, nevertheless can give the student idea of the way in which ethnomusicology is taught, and of the institutions which specialize in it. And since Kunst was an enthusiastic photographer, he included in his book photographs of as many scholars as he could. But as already indicated, this book's outstanding feature is the bibliography of some 5,000 items, with indexes of authors, subjects, tribes, and periodicals. In spite of its great value, Kunst's Ethnomusicology cannot occupy the position of the standard work representing the entire field. It omits several important areas of music, and, especially neglects those aspects of music research which involve the role of music in the cultures of the world, and which treat music as an aspect of human behavior rather than as an organized group of sounds.

Two early works, Primitive Music (1893) by Wallaschek and Die Anfünge der Musik (1911) by Stumpf, are mainly important because of the place they occupy in the history of our field. Both deal with the music of nonliterate cultures as a unit, and both view their subject as important mainly because of the light it sheds on the prehistory of Western music. Stumpfs is by far the more useful book, for it takes into account a tremendous amount of material and manages, despite the early date of its publication, to present an acceptable and generally accurate survey of "primitive music." A similarly historical point of view is held by Lach in his Die vergleichende Musikwisssenschaft (1924), one of the early works which tried to state the problems and methods of ethnomusicology and as such belongs to a series of works to which several early researchers contributed, but which has in effect been continued through the 1950's in the pages of the journal Ethnomusicology. Similar to Lach in orientation are Sachs' Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft (1959), Wallaschek's Primitive Music (1893), Stumpf's Die Anfiinge der Musik (1911). Sachs' book follows a less single-minded approach than the others, treating the music of other cultures first as an aspect of Westem music history, then as a field of study in its own right, and finally as an aid to the study of cultural, psychological, and biological aspects of music. But more of Sachs' work later.

Some Important Scholars of the Past

While a large number of early ethnomusicologists tried to set down the approaches of their field-as well as survey its subject matter-in a single volume, it is curious to find that the most prominent and influential early scholar did not write such a book. The bibliography of E. M. von Hombostel's writings is a large one, covering, geographically, more ground than any other student's, and ranging over a tremendous variety of approaches and problems. But he never wrote a book in which he condensed the vast amount of information which he must have had at hand, nor one which states his credo of research and scholarship. If all of his writings were woven into a single, large book, the result would indeed be a compendium of world music and a statement of approaches-musicological, ethnological, psychological, physical-which would exceed the most voluminous surveys of later years. But perhaps because he was aware of the great amount of material to be covered, and of the inherent futility of surveys and introductory works with the degree of oversimplication which is inevitable in them, Hornbostel never published such a book. It is all the more necessary, therefore, that the student acquaint himself with the landmarks of Hornbostel's publishing career. A complete list of his writings appeared in the Ethnomusicology Newsletter no.2, 1954; there it can be seen that many of his works were written jointly with other scholars, particularly with Otto Abraham. Hornbostel and Abraham's article "Tonsystem und Musik der Japaner" (1903) is the first of a long series of articles surveying the music – mainly from the viewpoint of melody – of various cultures, and setting down a method of describing music which has since been followed by many. The authors emphasize the scales, distinguish between vocal and instrumental as well as between theoretical and actual intonation; they pay less attention to rhythm, form, etc. (as the title indicates), but give detailed information on the measurement of intervals. A group of transcribed musical examples follows, with commentary on the individual pieces. After several years, during which Hornbostel (sometimes with Abraham or Stumpf) produced similar studies of the music of Turkey, India, North American Indians, New Cuinea, Sumatra, etc., the published two studies of special importance. His "African Negro Music" (1928) attempts to distill, from a large variety of styles, the broad characteristics of African Negro music, a kind of approach not previously attempted by him. In another work, "Fuegian Songs" (1936), he presents the music of one of the simplest Indian tribes (on Tierra del Fuego) in previously unattained detail. These are the high points in Hornbostel's presentations of individual musical styles and cultures.

Among the other landmarks in Hornbostel's bibliography we must mention two works which are concerned with the problem of transcription: Hornbostel and Abraham's "Ober die Bedeutung des Phonographen für die vergleichende Musikwissenschaft" (1904) and "Vorschlage zur Transkription exotischer Melodien" (1009). In Hornbostel's "Melodie und Skala" (1912) we find a detailed statement of his theory of scale and the method of studying melody. The close relationship between the scale of a piece and its melodic contour, but also the points at which these two elements are not interdependent, are brought out here. Also of tremendous importance is Hornbostel and Sachs' "Systematik der Musikinstrumente" (1914), which is the basic classification scheme for musical instruments. This classification used the work of the Belgian instrument curator Victor Mahillon as its basis, and although Curt Sachs himself indicated to this writer his belief that it required considerable revision, it is still the only classification in general use today. After Sachs' death, and almost 50 years after its publication, it was translated into English, indicating that it had not outlived its usefulness (See Chapter 7 for a sample of this classification).

In certain of his publications, Hornbostel delved into the problems of musical prehistory and into theoretical problems involving diffusion and multiple genesis. Most of the time he tended to remain aloof from these frequently unrewarding speculations, in contrast to most of his contemporaries, who were eager to decide whether man was more likely to borrow ideas from his fellows or invent things independently several times, in different places. But a few of his works did enter into the controversy. For example, his "Ober einige Panpfeifen aus nordwest Brasilien" (1910) involves the theory – later to become a catchword – of the "blown fifth" (Blasquintentheorie), a theory which tries to show the diffusion of a musical concept through comparison of instrument forms and tunings in the Pacific, but which has not been generally accepted. While it is difficult, then, to pinpoint the works of Hornbostel whose significance is such that they must be known to the student, it is important that students be aware of this scholar's tremendous impact on the field of ethnomusicology, and be acquainted with a sampling of his publications.

Equally encompassing, and more accessible to the unspecialized reader, are the works of Curt Sachs. A man equally concerned with European music history and the study of nonwestern music, Sachs produced several works of a general nature, and their impact on ethnomusicology has been great especially because they appeared in English and in a style suitable to the laymen.

An early work which concems ethnomusicology as a discipline is Sachs' The Rise of Music in the Ancient World (1943), a history of ancient music which takes essentially an evolutionist view of music history and thus traces the course of musical development from the simplest styles of some South American Indians and of the Ceylonese Vedda through the music of the Oriental high cultures to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. (By an evolutionist view we mean one according to which all musical cultures are assumed to have passed through the same stages, from simple to complex; and the differences among musical cultures are partly reflections of the fact that we have observed them at different stages of this development). To be sure, such an approach has its great disadvantages, for the evidence for musical evolution is circumstantial at best. But leaving aside these considerations, this work presents a fine summary of the styles of the world's music. Included also are some of Sachs' intriguing theories regarding the intimate relationship of music and culture patterns; and while these have not been generally accepted, they are interesting sidelights.

These theories are better developed in Sachs' World History of the Dance (1938), which includes a chapter on the music of non literate cultures. He believes, for example, that the general temperament of a people (and this he ascribes to the racial background) is specifically reflected in that people's music and dance. This is a theory which, in its general terms, is widely accepted, for music and dance are, after all, part of the same pattern of culture which determines other kinds of behavior.

But Sachs believes that one can predict specific dancing and musical behavior from the general characteristics of a culture (Sachs 1938:188). He shows, for example, that the Zuni Indians use melodies as well as dances which exhibit great vigor, while the tranquility of the Marquesas Islanders is reflected in the sustained tones of their music and their sitting posture in the dance. Although World History of the Dance contains some controversial statements, it must be considered one of the landmarks in the study of the interrelationship of the arts.

Sachs, in The Commonwealth of Art (1946), pursues these interrelationships further, attempting to show that all of the arts in a given culture or historical period share the same basic characteristics. He also postulates several traits present in all art, for example, his "universal dualism" concept, from which he also derives his two basic types of music, Iogogenic (word-bom) and pathogenic (emotion-bom). Again we see the evolutionist approach, placing the nonliterate cultures at the beginning and equating them with prehistory, for the distinction between the two basic musical types appears only in the simplest styles. In more complex cultures it is blurred, and in the world's high cultures it disappears.

In his Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft (1959), first written several decades earlier, Sachs includes these theories also, but on the whole it is a much more matter-of-fact presentation of the findings of ethnomusicology. Sachs' love of typology and his evolutionist approach are evident here again, and his awareness of the role of music in culture is an important asset of this book. But throughout his work Sachs takes a lofty approach to the problems of the ethnomusicologist. He rarely goes into a detailed discussion of one culture and the various and main fold aspects of its musical life. The value of his writings is in his view of the woods – but he neglects the trees.

Curt Sachs' work covering ethnomusicology as a whole is his most recent one, The Wellsprings of Music, published posthumously (1962) and edited by Jaap Kunst. Here, in contrast to some of his other works, Sachs appears not as the voice crying in the wildemess, but as the leader and coordinator of his colleagues, whom he quotes frequently and whose views he praises or criticizes. He even abandons to a degree his evolutionist interpretation of music history , although vestiges of it are still evident in his chapter headings ("Early Music”, "On the Way," "Progtess?”).

His interest in non-Westem music is still motivated by what it may show of the early stages of Western music. In this last work, Sachs is less dogmatic and less inclined to propound special theories of musical development and of the relationship of music to culture at large than he was in his earlier work. The fact that he has tumed from speculative to more descriptive statements is shown by his change of terminology; pathogenic music has become "tumbling strains," and logogenic, "one-step melodies."

A different aspect of Curt Sachs' work appears in his writings on musical instruments. Here the woods and the trees are given equal space, and his vast detailed knowledge of the world's organology comes to the fore. Sach's Real-Lexikon (1913) is still the authoritative encyclopedia of musical instruments, containing as it does etymology and equivalents in many languages for each instrument, as well as the expected information on structure and geographic distribution. And finaly, his colaboration with Hornbostel in devising a universally accepted classification of instruments ("Systematik der Musikinstrumente," 1914) also belongs among the great landmarks of ethnomusicology. The writings of this many-sided scholar must be familiar to the Student of ethnomusicology; but his theories should be accepted as guides and hypotheses rather than as hard and fast facts.

Since Sachs' main works are surveys of broad areas, it may be useful here to mention some other general works. Among the books which attempt a coverage of the music of nonliterate cultures are Bose's Musikalische Volkerkunde (1953) and Nettl's Music in Primitive Culture (1956). The latter approaches its field by describing the individual elements of music such as melody, rhythm, and form, and tends to concentrate on North American and African examples, giving a sampling of the kinds of things which are found in these cultures rather than attempting an all-encompassing theory of the type found in Curt Sachs' works. Bose's is less concemed with rhythm and form; it is greatly influenced by the work of Boses teacher, Hornbostel, reflecting his concern with vocal technique, melody and scale, and the relationship between racial characteristics and musical style.

Bose also presents a theory in which the basic differences between instrumental and vocal styles are explored and explained. The tone systems of the high cultures are contrasted with those styles in which scales without theoretical explanations or foundations are used.

Bose states the hypothesis that truly instrumental styles are found only in cultures with a body of music theory. Bose's is also one of the few books in which the relationship of language and music is explored, and in which the problem of style, and of what constitutes "a musical style" is attacked.

One of the early investigators of the music of Oriental high cultures was Robert Lachmann. His work also should be known to the student. His most general book, Musik des Orients (1929), is the first to treat the music of the Oriental high cultures as a unit. The idea of melodic skeletons, called patet in Java, raga in India, maqam in Arabic, as the basic ingredients of Oriental composition was postulated there. Lachmann's is one of the most ingenious works in ethnomusicological literature, for it succeeds convincingly in reducing the vast detail of Asian music to an intelligible formula. But after a reading of Lachmann should come the reading of works which delve into these details.

Among the brief treatments of ethnomusicology we should also mention Haydon's Introduction to Musicology (1941), Chapter 7 of which surveys the methods and problems of the field in relation to other subdivisions of musicology. The approach is somewhat dated, however, especially since Haydon views the field essentially as an auxiliary science of historical musicology.

The first volume of the New Oxford History of Music (Wellesz 1957) is in a sense a compendium of knowledge in the field of ethnomusicology .Although it disclaims any intention of indicating that non-Western music is simply a stage in a development which leads to Western cultivated music, the tone of the book is largely historical. A long section on the music of nonliterate peoples by Marius Schneider presents that author's interesting but not always convincing theories. Schneider, of course, is a leading scholar whose works should be known to the student. He is similar to Curt Sachs in his determination to see the genesis of world music as a single, more or less unified development. He is equally interested in the structure of music and in its role in culture, but his writing abounds with hypothetical statements which are not provable and frequently are not even credible. His interest in historical processes in non-Westem music is great, as is indicated by the sections on “Origin of Music”, “Origin of Polyphony”, and “Historical Development” (Wellesz 1957:1-82).

As an introduction to the music of nonliterate cultures, Schneider's essay in this book can not be recommended because of its very specialized point of view. The other sections in the volume, each by a specialist, are summaries of the musical histories of the Asian high cultures (with occasional mention of folk music), concentrating on those aspects of music traditionally stressed by ethnomusicology – melody and scale. There is some variation in quality among these chapters, but all together they form a good survey of Asian art music.

Among the compendia of material, we should also mention Das Europiische Volkslied (Danckert 1939), an attempt to describe the folk music of Europe, nation by nation, according to the theoretical view of a group of German anthropologists usually called the “Kulturkreis” school. The description of the music is mainly a tool of the theory, but Danckert's work is still the best survey of its field. A briefer survey of European and American folk music, less detailed but without the rather controversial theoretical base, is Herzog's article "Song" (1950), which summarizes the most common features of its field and the methods of dealing with them.

Monographic Landmarks

Having attempted an evaluation of the most important scholars and general works in the field of ethnomusicology, we now approach a more difficult task, the selection and summarization of some of the most important specialized publications.

Although many publications are discussed and referred to in this text, the following is an attempt to show how some of the better monographic treatments are put together, to designate a few model studies, and to survey briefly the work of some of the important ethnomusicologists whose work is not so world – encompassing as that of Hornbostel and Sachs.

Carl Stumpf has already been mentioned as the author of an early survey of primitive music, Die Anfünge der Musik (1911). He is also the author of what is considered to be the first article of significance on the music of one tribe, "Lieder der Bellakula Indianer" (1886).

In this article, the stage is set for dozens of future studies with essentially the same organization: delimitation by tribe; emphasis on the melodic phenomena, especially the scales, and inclusion of transcriptions. Most of the members of the "Berlin school" of ethnomusicology – Stumpf, Hombostel, Kolinski, Herzog, and their students – tended to organize their studies in this way. While such an organization might appear to be the obvious one to use, we should consider that the tribe is not necessarily always valid (or even convenient) as a musical unit, and that melodic phenomena are no more essential to music than are rhythmic ones. If Stumpf had taken a different approach to his work in 1886, perhaps the future of ethnomusicology would have been different.

As a model monograph in the Stumpf-Hornbostel tradition we may take Herzog's "A Comparison of Pueblo and Pima Musical Styles" (1938). Essentially, this study consists of separate analyses of the two musics, each subdivided by sections on vocal technique, melody, rhythm, over-all structure, and types. The comparison is brief, and is followed by a large section of transcriptions, which are evidently considered the main body of the work. The old emphasis on scales is indicated by a 14-page section at the end, juxtaposing the scales of the individual songs. Herzog's works, among the most important, tend to follow the StumpfHombostel tradition rather closely. The emphasis on the transcriptions, on analysis in terms of the individual elements of music (without disregarding the interactions among those elements), and the subdivision of the tribal style, once defined, into separate types, is characteristic. Herzog has also reflected the Hombostel tradition in his breadth or interest. His publications deal with American Indian, African, Oceanian, and Westem folk music, and he is less prone to explore the historical layers or the acculturational processes evident in the material. Generally he has been less interested in analyzing the effects of Westem music on the indigenous material which he is studying.

Another student of Hornbosters, Mieczyslaw Kolinski, tends to follow more in the theoretical footsteps of his teacher – Herzog's work being representative of the geographic and procedural approaches of Hornbostel. Although Kolinski is also the author of tribal monographs, and the publisher of innumerable transcriptions, he is most important because of his speculations involving the character of world music at large and his methods of dealing with it. Kolinski's general theory of tempo and of describing tempo, "The Evaluation of Tempo" (1959), Ís typical of thÍs scholar's work. Kolinski proposes to measure this by indicating the average number of notes per minute. To illustrate his theory , he compares the music of several American Indian tribes and finds, for instance, that the Pawnee have 139 notes per minute on the average. the Yuma, 118, and the West African Dahomeans, over 150.

Also characteristic is "Classification of Tonal Structures" (1961), a classification of scale and melodic structure in a system which allows space for all possible combinations of tones which would appear in a chromatic arrangement. Intervals which do not fit, i.e., which do not appear in the tempered 12-tone scale, are assimilated to their closest equivalents. With this system of classification, Kolinski compares American Indian, African Negro, and AngloAmerican folk melodies to show the number of different tone structures appearing in each culture. While Kolinski's approach is definitely directed at comparison of musical cultures – one of the primary aims of ethnomusicology – it has not found broad acceptance because the picture of world music which it yields does not seem to convey meaning beyond the bare facts it presents. But Kolinski has contributed greatly and importantly to the methodology of musical analysis and description, if not so much to the understanding of musical structure itself.

Among the followers of the Berlin school who later deviated from its aims and methods is Marius Schneider, already mentioned as a scholar whose work claims ardent adherents as well as bitter critics. His chapter on the music of nonliterate cultures in the New Oxford History of Music (Wellesz 1957) has been discussed above. Although his publications deal with a tremendous variety of subjects, his Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit (l934) – a history of polyphony – is, perhaps best known and most representative. It involves a survey of polyphonic styles in "primitive" music and an attempt to show historical layers, somewhat in the fashion of the German "Kulturkreis" school. His works sometimes present theories which, while highly imaginative, are difficult to prove or even to believe. His writings usually include numerous transcriptions; and while these are evidently accurate, they lack certain basic information such as the number of performers, whether the transcription is an excerpt or a whole composition, etc.

Another German scholar of great importance is Walter Wiora, a specialist in German folk music whose interests have branched out beyond this area, and who has produced a number of monographs and articles on basic questions of ethnomusicology. Like Schneider, Wiora is interested in stratifying the musical cultures of the world in the fashion of a historian.

Perhaps his main contribution is his ability to see the world of music as a unit and to evaluate properly the interaction between the art music and the traditional music of a culture. Wiora's most important work is probably Europiiische Volksmusik und abendliiudische Tonkunst (1957), a history of music in westem Europe which stresses the role of folk music in the fine art.

Main strength is probably his thorough knowledge of both historical musicology and ethnomusicology. Less exciting in terms of theory, but extremely solid in the presentation of detailed information on individual musical cultures, are two other ethnomusicologists of German schooling: Kurt Reinhard and Ernst Emsheimer. Reinhard's contributions have been in Turkish and Chinese music. His largest work, Chinesische Musik (1956), is a historical survey of Chinese music based on secondary sources. In recent years, Reinhard has devoted himself especially to the rebuilding of the Berlin Phonogrammarchiv, which was built up by Stumpf and Hornbostel but largely destroyed during World War II. In this capacity, Reinhard has written important articles on archiving methods and set a pattern for reporting holdings and process in ethnomusicological archives (see his "Das Berliner Phonogrammarchiv,"1961).

Emsheimer's most important works have appeared in the periodical Ethnos, a Swedish anthropological journal, and concern musical instruments of peoples living in northern Europe and Asia. They are models of scholarship, approaching their subjects from physical, organological, and ethnological points of view, and they include considerations of musical style as well as structure of the instruments. Emsheimer's largest work, to date, is a description, with transcriptions, of the music of some Mongolian tribes; The Music of the Mongols (1943); but his later, more specialized studies, deal with instruments, and he is the coeditor of a projected handbook of European folk music instruments (with Erich Stockmann).

A towering figure among European ethnomusicologists was Béla Bartók, the famed composer, who considered his scholarly work in musicology equal in importance to his compositions. Bartók's most important works are his monographic collections of Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian, and Slovak folk songs (Bartók 1931, 1951, 1959). His main interest was the preservation and propagation of the songs of the peasant communities of eastern Europe, and his main works are indeed largely collections his own transcriptions. Although his influence was great, his theoretical contributions are somewhat limited. They consist of his great facility and care in transcription, and of a system of classifying melodies. His method of transcribing is discussed in Chapter 4, and while the care Bartók lavished on the notations and the ability of his hearing are awe-inspiring, the very extent of the detail causes problems. The method classifying melodies has been widely accepted as well – it is largely based on rhythm and on the number of lines and the number of syllables per line in the text – but it has also been severely criticized (see review by Bose in Ethnomu8icology 5:62-63, 1961). Bartók can be considered the leader of a school of Hungarian and other eastern European folk music scholars, including the eminent Zoltan Kodaly, whose work is perhaps of equal or even greater theoretical value than Bartók's.

Among the limitations of the Hungarian scholars' approaches we may mention a certain tendency toward cultural purism (present also in the work of many collectors of western European folk song), i.e., the focusing of interest on material presumed to be old and untouched by influences from the city, and a degree of scom for acculturated material.

A number of other scholars are known mainly because of the collecting which they did, and because of their transcriptions and analyses of raw material. Each country has a sort of folk song collector laureate, and we would be hard put to discuss all of them and to evaluate their collections. Besides Bartók, however, the greatest impact on the English-speaking world was probably that of Cecil Sharp, a British collector whose importance in American folk music is second to none. Sharp's influence is felt mainly among the American and British collectors who wished to find songs of great age and were not interested in songs of recent origin. He is also among those who developed the classification of folk music according to the modes of Gregorian chant, believing that the modal character of the tunes indicated the early date of their origin, and that the modal system provided a good scheme for grouping tunes. His most important work, English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians (1932), contains a large collection of songs, analyzed according to mode but not according to other elements of music, with an introduction giving his rather special view of the modes. An outgrowth of Sharp's approach has been the tendency of American collectors to analyze songs, especially their scales, individually, without drawing a composite picture of an entire corpus of music and its style.

An excellent collection which goes further than Sharp's but follows the same general tendencies is Schinhan's The Music of the Ballads (1957). Here the songs are transcribed, the scales are classified, the over-all form of each song is given. But rhythm is not included.

Despite their limitations, the collections which we can consider to have been produced under the inHuence of Sharp and Bartók, with their individual analyses of the melodic aspects of tunes, are greatly superior to the large number of collections, produced everywhere, in which no analysis is attempted, and in which songs are not grouped in a musically meaningful fashion.

In our survey of types of ethnomusicological publications we should also include an example of historical approach to individual elements of music. Sachs' Rhythm and Tempo (1953) is an attempt to find logic and to describe a worldwide historical development in what is actually a rather neglected element of music. A similar work in the field of melody is Szabolcsi's Bausteine zu einer Geschichte der Melodie (1959), in which it is assumed that certain basic laws govern the history of melodic movement everywhere. Szabolcsi's work is characterized by its attempts to explore musical history and to create a rather exact picture of the probable sequence of events, and by the author's thorough use of the extant literature on the subject. Some of Szabolcsi's conclusions must be disputed, but his book is (jne of the few which treats Westem and non-Westem music together and as such should be considered a classic in ethnomusicology.

We have attempted to mention those ethnomusicologists of largely European residence whose works the student of ethnomusicology should know, and to single out a few of their outstanding publications. Obviously this procedure has its dangers: we have omitted some scholars who perhaps should have been included, and for this omission we can only apologize and repeat that we present only a sampling. Drawing lines is always difficult. We have been guided by two things: 1) the extent to which a scholar covered relatively large areas of ethnomusicology, and 2) the extent to which he, through a sÍngle important work, has influenced other scholars. For a more detailed enumeration of ethnomusicologists we refer the reader to Kunst (1959:63-66).

Important American Contributions

The following paragraphs attempt to do for American scholars what was done above for European ones. Perhaps the outstanding figure in terms of publication is Frances Densmore.

Densmore specialized in North American Indian music and worked without being greatly influenced by the European and American ethnomusicologists who were her contemporaries.

Through a long lifetime of research, her methods and views did not change appreciably, and as a result of the isolation from other scholars in which she carried on her studies, her publications do not have the degree of authority which they otherwise might. Nevertheless, Densmore's many books and articles (of which Teton Sioux Music, 1918, is perhaps the best) present a wealth of notations, backgrounds of individual songs, and general information about Indian music. Her transcriptions are not as reliable as those of Bartók, Hornbostel, and Herzog (see Chapter 4), and she is weakest in her over-all conclusions and in her statistical summaries of Indian styles (see Chapter 7). But students of ethnomusicology are bound to use her publications.

Among the consistently important American students of ethnomusicology is Charles Seeger, whose work, like that of Curt Sachs, attempts to formulate theories on the music of all of the world's cultures, and, more important, to devise methods for studying all music. His interest in transcription and notation is discussed in Chapter 4. His other theoretical writings involve the relationship between historical and synchronic studies of music, between the music itself and the words which must be used to describe music, and between the musician and the researcher. Several American ethnomusicologists have come from the field of anthropology; they have been interested mainly in the role which music plays in culture, and in the study of music as human behavior. David P. McAllester, a pupil of George Herzog, has produced monographs in the field of North American Indian music which can serve as models for the type of study which concentrates on a body of music more limited than an entire tribal repertory. McAllester's Enemy Way Music (1954) is a study of cultural values as reflected in music behavior and music in one Navaho ceremony, the Enemy Way. Although transcriptions are included here, they serve primarily as illustrations for the ethnological approach which the author follows.

McAllester's Peyote Music (1949) is a study of a musical style – the Peyote style – found in a specific selection of songs in each of a large number of North American Indian tribes.

Although the music itself is somewhat more in the foreground here, this monograph also stresses the relationship of music to other activities and to the Indians' value systems.

Alan P. Merriam has been among the most prolific and influential American ethnomusicologists. Mainly an Africanist, he has also contributed publications on the music of the American Negroes, on jazz, on North American Indian music, and on questions involving the problems of ethnomusicology as a science, as well as bibliographies. All of his publications are quite sound and authoritative, but it is difficult to pick out landmarks among them. One representative work of his (Merriam, 1955) is an attempt not only to use anthropological methods for ethnomusicological purposes, but to use musical material for the purpose of solving problems in the field of anthropology. Merriam (1958) is also the author of the best summary of African music published thus far.

Richard A. Waterman, a jazz musician turned anthropologist and ethnomusicologist, has made important contributions to the study of West African and American Negro music as well as Australian aboriginal culture. An important contribution of Waterman's (1952) is a theory explaining the reasons for the partial acceptance of African musical traits in the American Negro repertory which has been widely judged as the fundamental statement on the subject.

Among the American scholars active in ethnomusicology we should also mention B. H. Bronson, a specialist in British-American folk music who has also pioneered in the objective classification and the exact study of genetic relationship among variants of folk tunes. The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads (1959), by Bronson, is a most important work, a tremendous compendium of the tunes collected for the so-called Child ballads – the BritishAmerican ballads presumably of popular (anonymous) origin – both in Britain and North America. For some ballads he gives over 100 tunes, and he indicates the genetic relationship of each tune to the rest as well as giving an analysis of scale and mode, but not of rhythm or form. Other publications of Bronson's involve the use of I.B.M. techniques (with punched cards) to sort melodies according to their characteristics.

Willard Rhodes, a student of American and folk music and of African music, has had considerable influence on the development of ethnomusicology in the United States. Besides producing a number of publications, he stands out as the teacher of many of this country's scholars and as the first president of the Society for Ethnomusicology.

Among the monographs which should be known to the student we should include Japanese Music and Musical Instruments (1959) by Malm. This very beautiful1y illustrated book should perhaps be considered the best over-al1 survey of the music of one high culture; its main weakness is its lack of musical examples. Rather than approach the subject chronologically or geographically, Malm gives brief historical sketches and descriptions individually of several types of Japanese music – religious music, Gagaku, Nohgaku – and then of several important instruments – Biwa, Shakuhachi, Koto, Shamisen – and ends with a discussion of folk music. This rather contrasts with Reinhard's Chinesische Musik, which is similar in size and includes separate discussion of instruments but is essentially chronological in its approach, and which does include a large number of examples.

Malm's work is characteristic of American ethnomusicology of the 1950's in its interest in the contemporary scene, even though it does not neglect the history of Japanese music. Thus, Malm even gives a list of places "Where to Hear Japanese Music in Tokyo," as well as other useful appendices.

The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music (1954) by Hood is another monograph of importance. It is a very detailed study of one aspect of Javanese music – Patet, a concept somewhat similar to mode in Greek and medieval European music. This book is based on the author's own practical study of Javanese musicianship, rather than mainly on informants or Vlitten Javanese sources. Hood's ability to perform the material is keenly felt; there is perhaps no other work analyzing a musical style of the Orient which shows the author to be so intimately familiar with the style.

A type of study which is beginning to appear in increasingly large numbers is the survey of past research, theory, and method. An authoritative representative of this kind of publication is Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship Since 1898 (1959) by Wilgus, a searching study of scholarship in American folk song by American scholars in the twentieth century.

Although most surveys of research are shorter and more strictly bibliographical, Wilgus' stands out as a model because of its lively treatment of the interrelationship of various ideas and theories. It reads, at times, like a play-by-play description of a sports event.

Concentrating on scholarship involving the verbal texts of folk song, Wilgus nevertheless considers also the music and especially also those studies involving both words and music.

Periodicals

The student of ethnomusicology should be acquainted not only with the most important periodicals in the field, but also some of those in adjacent fields which frequently include articles and reviews of ethnomusicological importance. Indexing services and other bibliographies of the contents of periodicals are described below in the section on.

"Bibliographies."

The most important journals are Ethnomusicology (Journal of the Society for Ethnomusicology) and the Journal of the International Folk Music Council (abbreviated IFMC).

Ethnomusicology began in 1953 as a mimeographed letter edited by Alan P. Merriam, designed to establish contact among the scholars of this country and the world. Gradually it tumed into a newsletter and, in 1958, into a full-Hedged journal which appears three times per year. Its articles have dealt with the music of nonliterate and Oriental cultures and with questions of general import in the field, and occasionally with Westem folk music. A group of articles outlining the problems and purposes of ethnomusicology, culminating in a special issue in September, 1963, devoted entirely to these matters, have been one of its main contributions. The inclusion of many musical examples is one of its features. Book reviews, record reviews, and a substantial dance section are worth mentioning, as are its special bibliographies. The "Notes and News" section contains information on work in progress, new publications, organizations, field trips, and conferences.

The Journal of the IFMC is an annual publication devoted about half to Westem folk music and half to the music of nonliterate cultures. Its articles tend to be abstracts of papers read at the Council's meetings, although with the 1961 volume they have become more substantial in size. An important feature is the review section, which is much more comprehensive than that of Ethnomusicology, for it includes, besides book reviews, descriptions and evaluations of the contents of joumals in the field and of individual articles from other periodicals. Among the periodicals in ethnomusicology now extant we should also mention the African Music Journal, published by the Intemational Library of African Music and edited by Hugh Tracey. It contains articles and reviews on African and other Negro music, some written in ethnomusicological fashion, others concerned with questions such as the use of African material by African and Westem composers and with "applied" problems such as the future of the African Negro music.

Among the earlier periodicals we should mention two: Zeitschrift für vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, a spiritual forerunner of Ethnomusicology, which was published from 1933 to 1935 by a German society, "Gesellschaft iur Edorschung der Musik des Orients," and which includes articles – in German, English, and French – by such leading figures as Hornbostel, Lachmann, Herzog, and Bartók; and another serial publication which had only a brief life, but great importance, Sammelbande für vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, which lasted only from 1922 to 1923 but which reprinted some of the important early works in the field.

Three further contemporary serial publications are devoted to ethnomusicology, including material of a specialized nature. The Colloques de Wegimont contains occasional volumes (two at the time of writing) devoted mainly to proceedings of sessions held at Wegimont, Belgium, under the leadership of Paul Collaer. The Folklore and Folk Music Archivist is a small journal published by Indiana University and devoted to news and problems of ethnomusicological and folkloristic archives. Many periodicals in other fields have included information on the music of non-Westem and folk cultures. These should be known to the student of ethnomusicology, whatever the discipline from which he approaches his field. Among the musicological periodicals, the American and German ones have been the most important: Musical Quarterly, Journal of the American Musicological Society, the Music Library Association's Notes, and, in Germany, Musikforschung. Some of the early German music journals contain the early classics in our field: in the nineteenth century, Vierteljahrschrift für Musikwissenschaft; later Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft, and, during the 1930's, Archiv für Musikforschung. Some organs of intemational societies should also be mentioned: the Zeitschrift and the Sammelbande of the Intemationale Musikgesellschaft, and the contemporary journal of the Intemational Musicological Society, Acta Musicologica.

Anthropological periodicals have not as frequently included articles on ethnomusicological subjects as have music journals. Nevertheless, some important works have appeared in these organs, especially in the American ones, most important of which are American Anthropologist and Southwestem Journal of Anthropology. The intemationally oriented Anthropos (Fribourg, Switzerland) and the German Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, as well as the Swedish joumal Ethnos, have had important contributions. More important than the anthropology journals, however, have been those in the field of folklore. Again, the American ones stand out in their interest in musicological subject matter. Most important has been the Journal of American Folklore, which has contained many of the landmarks of research on American folk and Indian music in the last five decades. Aiso to be mentioned are Western Folklore, Midwest Folklore, Southern Folklore Quarterly, and the Bulletin of the Tennessee Folklore Society. The Bulletin of the Folk Song Society of the Northeast (1930-37) contains many of the articles by Phillips Barry, a pioneer scholar in British-American folk music.

European folklore joumals have not been as interested in musical folklore as have the American ones. But the British periodicals devoted to more practical aspects of singing and folk dance should be mentioned: Journal of the Folk Song Society (1889-1931) and English Dance and Song (since 1936).

Of course many other periodicals have included occasional contributions of an ethnomusicological nature. This has been only a summary of high points, with a listing of those journals which the scholars in our field regularly scan.

Bibliographies

Just as ethnomusicologists must be acquainted with the journals of several fields, so must they be prepared to use the general bibliographies of musicology, anthropology, and folklore. But increasingly they will find that bibliographies including only ethnomusicological materials are becoming available. There are, indeed, a considerable number of specialized bibliographies on hand already.

Kunst (1959, with 1960 supplement) gives the largest and most comprehensive bibliography. It contains some 5,000 items, indexed by author, instrument, subject of a musical nature, tribe and nation, and periodical. It is strongest in Asian music and in the music of nonliterate cultures, and weakest in Western folk music. Bibliographic information is fairly complete, though at times certain details are omitted. Beyond Kunst, articles in magazines and journals can be located in Music Index (Detroit), which covers music periodicals in many languages from 1948 on, and which gives entries for authors and titles.

For earlier materials, and for periodicals outside the field of music, the general periodical indexes are useful: Reader's Guide for general and popular articles, International Index for more scholarly ones.

Psychological Abstracts includes some material, as do the large German indexes, Bibliographie der deutschen Zeitschriften - literatur and Bibliographie der fremdsprachigen Zeitschriften literatur. Another general source of periodical information is the annual "Folklore in Periodical Literature" in the supplement of Journal of American Folklore. Some periodicals give lists of the contents of other journals; most useful here are two anthropological journals, Anthropos and Current Anthropology. The bibliographic sources of ethnomusicology are also outlined and briefly evaluated by Nettl (1961).

Bibliographies of specific subjects – usually limited geographically – are found for a number of areas only. The best one in terms of quality done so far is that of North American Indian music compiled by Joseph Hickerson (M.A. thesis, Indiana University, 1960; to be published by the Bureau of American Ethnology). It gives annotations, lists musical examples and their sources, and – very important – locates material on Indian music in publications devoted to broader ethnography. The location of such musical inforrmation in general discussions of culture, tribal monographs, field reports, etc., is one of the difficulties of ethnomusicological bibliography. But this type of material is of great importance as it is usually the best source for indicating the cultural context of music. Thus Hickerson's work could serve as a model bibliography for our field.

African music is covered by Varley (1936); his work was brought up to date by Merriam (1951). A predecessor-less detailed but more inclusive (records and sheet music areincluded) - of Hickerson's work is a monumental bibliography of North American folklore by Haywood (1951), which was reprinted in 1961 with corrections. Rhodes (1952) gives a survey of the trends in North American Indian music research. Thus, the areas in nonliterate cultures best covered bibliographically are North American and Negro Africa.

There has been, however, an excellent bibliography in the field of Asian music mainly devoted to the cultivated music of the Oriental high cultures, but including also the folk music of these countries. Cited here as Waterman (1947), it appeared as a series of articles in the Music Library Association's Notes, and while covering largely the Westem publications, it includes also a good many which appeared in Asia itself. There is no overall bibliography of European folk muslc, although there are blbliographies for individual nations. Nor are there complete bibliographies for Oceanian and Latin American music (for the latter, however, see the music section in the annual Handbook of Latin American Studies). Gilbert Chase's Guide to the Music of Latin America (Pan American Union, 1962), in its second edition, is also excellent for ethnomusicology.

For keeping abreast of the current publications in ethnomusicology , several periodicals are very useful. The best coverage is in the journal Ethnomusicology. Here a "Current Bibliography" section of some 400 items per year is given. Coverage is not very even, however, for perference is given to the music of nonliterate cultures and, secondarily, the high cultures of Asia.

Folk music is rather neglected. But Ethnomusicology has made bibliographical work something of a specialty, presenting so-called "special bibliographies" of material on certain subjects and areas, or of the work of certain individual scholars, as a recurring feature.

Also of use in keeping abreast of current publications are certain periodicals which give the contents of other journals. The Journal of the IFMC is most intensive in this kind of coverage it even gives brief reviews of the articles – but since it appears only once a year it is not really very current. We have already mentioned the lists of current articles given in Anthropos and Current Anthropology (since 1962). The Journal of Music Theory also lists current articles of theoretical interest, and some of these have ethnomusicological content.

For books in our field the best continuing list appears after the book review section in the Music Library Association Notes.

Unpublished theses should also be covered by the careful bibliographical searcher. The most comprehensive source is Alan P. Merriam's list in Ethnomusicology (Merriam 1960, supplemented by Gillis 1962). Also of great use are the occasionallists published by the Joint Committee of the Music Teachers National Association and the American Musicological Society, entitled Doctoral Dissertation in Musicology, edited by Helen Hewitt (3rd edition, 1961, published by the American Musicological Society). Here the dissertations are classified by subject, and ethnomusicological materials have a section of their own.

Unfortunately, only a few musical dissertations done in anthropology departments are included. Of course the excellent Dissertation Abstracts published by University Microfilms (Ann Arbor, Michigan) is an indispensable tool in any field.

Personal bibliographies, i.e., lists of all of the publications of certain individual authors, are sometimes useful for the ethnomusicologist. Such lists have been compiled for some of the most prominent scholars in our field, and we mention the following as most useful: E. M. von Hornbostel, compiled by Alan P. Merriam (Ethnomusicology Newsletter no.2, Aug. 1954, p. 9-15); Frances Densmore, compiled by Alan P. Merriam and others (ibid. no.7, April 1956, p. 14-29); George Herzog, compiled by Barbara Krader (ibid. no.6, Jan. 1956, p. 11-20); Andre Schaeffner, compiled by Barbara Krader (Ethnomusicology 2:27-34, 1958); and Curt Sachs, compiled by Kurt Hahn (Acta Musicologica 29:94-106, 1957); also a bibliography of the works of Jaap Kunst, issued in mimeographed form by the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, in 1961.

Related to the personal bibliographies are directories of various sorts, giving location of institutions, addresses and other inforrmation about scholars, etc. There is no comprehensive directory for the field of ethnomusicology. Kunst (1959) describes institutions in a section on "Training Possibilities for Ethnomusicologists," as well as giving brief sketches and photographs of selected scholars. Ethnomusicology offers occasional surveys of courses taught in the United States and other countries, and some information on institutions. The Folklore and Folk Music Archivist gives surveys of the history and contents of important collections of recordings. The International Directory of Anthropological Institutions and the projected International Directory of Anthropologists are valuable. Finally, Lawless (1960) gives biographies of professional performers of folk music in the United States-and some of these are also scholars and researchers.

While the dance is not a specific subject of this book, the close relationship between dance and music can hardly be ignored. Thus we should mention at least the best survey of dance research available, an article by Gertrude P. Kurath (1960), which contains an excellent bibliography. The "Current Bibliography" in Ethnomu8icology includes a special section on current publications dealing with dance research.

Discography

Along with bibliography, the science of discography is increasing in importance to ethnomusicologists. The raw material of ethnomusicology is best preserved, after all, not in books but as recorded sound. Thus a knowledge of commercial recordings and the ability to locate nonprocessed field recordings in archives or private collections is an essential companion skill to bibliographic facility.

There is not, and there probably never will be, a comprehensive central guide to the contents of ethnomusicological archives. Occasionally this kind of information appears in print, but to a large extent the student must locate material of tribes, cultures, instruments, and song types in which he is interested through personal contact, or through the exchange channels of scholarly societies. Each of the important archives of folk and non-Western music is well cataloged, and direct inquiry will normally produce the desired information. In the United States, the Library of Congress' Archive of Folk Song is certainly the best source for field recordings of American folk music, and a good one for other kinds. The Archives of Folk and Primitive Music at Indiana University contains one of the best collections of North American Indian music, as well as rich samplings from all other parts of the world; it is perhaps the best all-around collection. The Laboratory of Ethnomusicology at Northwestem University contains, among other collections, a great deal of African and New World Negro music. The Ethnomusicology Archive at the University of Califomia at Los Angeles specializes in Oriental music. The Phonogrammarchiv in West Berlin contains a large general collection especially strong in Turkish and other Near Eastem music. And other, only slightly less important archives also have their specialties. Here The Folklore and Folk Music Archivist gives useful information.

George Herzog (1936) published a survey of research in ethnomusicology in which the most important field collections made up to that time are enumerated, and their locations given. This survey is still valuable, although it should be realized that many of the collections listed do not have the value they had in 1936, having been superceded by others of greater scope and acoustic fidelity. Also, the location of many has changed. Reinhard (1961) gives a listing of the contents of the Berlin Phonogrammarchiv as it was built up after World War II.

The International Folk Music Council in 1954 published an International Catalog listing archives. And the news sections of Ethnomusicollogy and the Bulletin (not the Journal) of the lnternational Folk Music Council give information on important acquisitions of , some of the large archives.

The location of commercial records of folk and non-Westem music is, of course, less difficult, but their evaluation is equally hard. Until about 1952, few recordings of this sort were available; since then, the industry has mushroomed, and every month sees the release of several recordings intended to serve scholar and student, as well as many which are intended only as entertainment, but whose titles do not distinguish them from the more serious one. The first important attempt to provide the public with authentic material for oriental music was made by Hornbostel in 1928; a set of records, edited by Carl Lindstrom, illustrating Asian and North African high cultures, was issued and entitled Musik des Orients.

About 1958 it was reissued by Decca with the title Music of the Orient; and in spite of the great competition from newer recordings, it is probably still the best survey of its area, containing as it does pieces which are well suited to attracting the layman to the large area of non-Westem music.

The student of ethnomusicology will not devote much time to his subject before being confronted by the Ethnic Folkways Library, a series published by the Folkways Corporation which contains that company's output of greatest authenticity, in contrast to its large number of entertainment issues. This series contains many fine LP records accompanied by notes of varying quality. But it also contains some severe disappointments.

Among the outstanding records of the Ethnic Folkways Library we should mention three from its early days: Sioux and Navaho Music; Music of Equator, Africa; and Hungariun Folk Music, made from recordings taken by Béla Bartók and accompanied by a booklet of his transcriptions. Besides surveys of the music of nations and tribal areas, Folkways has also presented records of a more specialized nature, such as Drums of the Yoruba of Nigeru, edited by William R. Bascom, in which the various uses and styles of drumming are illustrated. Another series of importance is the World Library of Primitive and Folk Music edited by Alan Lomax and issued by Columbia. The Sound of Africa, a large set of LP records issued by the International Library of African Music and edited by Hugh Tracey, illustrates many African styles and is accompanied by detailed notes on cards. The pamphlets accompanying commercial records are sometimes tremendously useful, but sometimes they have been written by individuals who knew little about the conditions under which the recordings were made. The usefulness of a record is proportionate to the quality and amount of background information given in the accompanying notes. This point is further discussed in Chapter 3; but it behooves us here to speak briefly of the problems of evaluating commercial production of field recordings.

Record reviews in the general record magazines, such as High Fidelity are only moderately useful in most cases. These magazines do not include many recordings of ethnomusicological interest, and their reviews tend to emphasize the acoustic fidelity and the quality of the performance rather than cultural authenticity. The record review index section in the Music Library Association's Notes contains folk and non-Westem music once each year (see Notes 18, no.4, Sept. 1961). Good reviews of records, written from the ethnomusicological point of view, appear in Ethnomusicology, Journal of American Folklore (usually essays giving concise opinions on each of a large group of records), and, beginning with its 1962 volumes, the Journal of the IFMC. A fine list of records was also published by Kunst (1959:24-36).

Evaluating records without the aid of reviews by specialists is difficult. We can, of course, ascertain whether a record contains a representative sampling of a culture's music or whether only a few nonrepresentative examples appear; but this does not help us in evaluating the usefulness of the individual pieces of music on a record. Among our criteria must be the following: Was the piece recorded in the field, or in a laboratory? By native musicians, whose performance would be accepted by others in their culture? Has the music been arranged for Westem consumption by professional musicians? These questions cannot easily be answered by simply listening. Thus, the value of the record and the possibility of evaluating it are largely dependent on the presence and quality of the accompanying notes.

These should give detailed information on the circumstances of recording and on the kinds and numbers of instruments and performers, and there should be at least a cursory description of the musical styles and of the forms of the compositions. Lacking such notes, even an excellent collection can be rendered useless. As Laurence Picken says in a review of the UNESCO Musical Anthology of the Orient, "an anthology that includes much interesting and beautiful music is reduced to a fraction of its potential value by slipshodness in documentation (Journal of the IFMC 15:142, 1962).

Mere lists of recordings, without discrimination as to quality, are found in many places. Lawless (1960) lists a large number of American folk song records. The Intemational Folk Music Council's International Catalogue of Recorded Folk Music (1954, with supplements published at intervals), is a list which, though large, can be considered to have the Council's recommendation. The Library of Congress' Catalogue of Printed Books: Music and Phonorecords contains reprints of catalog cards of recordings and a subject index, making it possible to locate the music of specific individual cultures. The Library of Congress catalog began including records in 1953. Finally, the Schwann LP record catalog, a listing of records available on the American market, has a special section on "folk music" which also contains the music of non-Westem cultures, all arranged by country.

In spite of these many aids, there is no doubt that the field of ethnomusicological discography is not nearly so well developed as that of bibliography. It is evident that there are a great many important bibliographical aids, which were necessitated by the fact that ethnomusicological publications appear in the annals of several disciplines. But it is necessary for the student to be acquainted directly with the procedures for finding bibliographic information, with the most important landmarks in the history of research, and with the most important scholars in the field.

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Bartók, Béla (1931). Hungarian Folk MUSic. London: Oxford University Press.Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 37

Bartók, Béla and Albert B. Lord (1951). Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs. New York, Columbia University Press.

______ (1959). SlovenSké l'udové piesne, vol. 1. Bratislava: Academia Scientiarum Slovaca. Bose, Fritz (1953). Musikalische Vólkerkunde. Ztirich: Atlantis.

Bronson, Bertrand Harris (1959). The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads. Princeton, N. J.:  Princeton University Press.

Danckert, Werner (1939). Das europiiische Volkslied. Berlin: J. Bard.

Densmore, Frances (1918). Teton Sioux Music. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. (Bulletin 61 of the Bureau of American Ethnology)

Emsheimer, Ernst (1943). The Music of the Mongols. Stockholm: The Sino-Swedish Expedition, Publication 21.

Gillis, Frank J. (1962). "An annotated bibliography of theses and dissertations in ethnomusicology and folk music accepted at American and foreign universities, supplement I”, Ethnomusicology 6:191-214.

Haydon, Glen (1941). Introduction to Musicology. New York: Prentice-Hall. Reprinted by University of North Carolina Press (Chapel Hill) , 1959.

Haywood, Charles (1951). A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong. New York: Greenberg. 2nd revised edition, New York, Dover Publishers, 1961, with added index of performers and arrangers.

Herzog, George (1936). Research in Primitive and Folk Music in the United States. Washington: American Council of Learned Societies, Bulletin 24.

______ (1938). "A comparison of Pueblo and Pima musical styles," Journal of American Folklore 49: 283-417.

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Hood, Mantle (1954). The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patern in Javanese Music. Groningen: J. R. Wolters.

______ (1963). "Music, the unknown" in Harrison, Hood and Palisca. Musicology. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.

Hornbostel, Erich M. Von (1910). “Uber einige Panpfeifen aus nordwest-Brasilien” in Theodor Koch-Gruenberg, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianem. Berlin: E. Wasmuth, Vol. 2.

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Hornbostel, Erich M. von, and Otto Abraham (1903). "Tonsystem und Musik der Japaner”.  Sammelbiinde der internationalen Muikgesellschaft, 4:302-360.

______ (1904). “Uber die Bedeutung des Phonographen für die vergleichende Musikwissenschaft”, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 36: 222-233

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Kurath, Gertrude P. (1960). "Panorama of dance ethnology", Current Anthropology 1:233-254.

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Merriam, Alan P. (1951). "An annotated bibliography of African and American derived music since 1936," Africa 21:319-330.

______ (1955). "The use of music in the study of a problem of acculturation," American Anthropologist 57 :28-34.

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______ (1962). The Wellsprings of Musíc. The Hague: M. Nijhoff.

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