Ethnic Music

A LITTLE ABOUT "ETHNOMUSICOLOGY"

by Edi Nasution

The term "Ethnomusicology" first appeared in the book Jaap Kunst Musicologica A Study of the Nature of Ethno-musicology of, its Problems, Methods, and Representative Personalities (Amsterdam, 1950). In the book the Jaap Kunst, a term meant wearing a hyphen: "ethno-musicology", but for subsequent use without the hyphen. Based on the scope of field studies, according Jaaps Kunst, the use of the term "Ethnomusicology" is more appropriate than "comparative musicology" as a new discipline ("Ethnomusicology") is not much more to do comparative study when compared to disciplines actors.1 

At first, ethnomusicology as a discipline of science specifically developed in accordance with the musical life (along with musical instruments and dance) in society who have an oral tradition, out of the boundaries of urban music art (urban communities) of Europe. The main research subject is the music of "public non-literature" ("tribal"); musical tradition passed down orally in high culture in Asia such as China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, India, Iran, and the Arabic-speaking countries; and folk music ("folk music"). 2 In the meantime, a large area that is quite interesting from the disciplines of ethnomusicology, as an example, among others, "change" and "acculturation", is a field of study that is quite attractive, and so on up to the study of music popular and commercial, while the urban music centered research tradition in some parts of the world.3 

Now ethnomusicology has been recognized as an academic discipline in universities of USA, Canada and Francis, but more expanded definition of ethnomusicology in Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and also possibly in other countries. In practice, the ethnomusicologist are experts trained specifically in the field of music or anthropology, where both are perfect together. The results of their research were brought to the music or anthropology departments at various universities, and was also placed on ethnographic museums and scientific research institutions of national academies, and institutes that have previously been set up specifically in Eastern Europe.4 

This is perhaps what led to the branch of musicology and anthropology, ethnomusicology ie, present no single definition. Alan P. Merriam (1964: 7) defines an anthropologist ethnomusicology as "the study of music in culture". The data collected include a variety of possible link with the musical aspects of human behavior, and the facts that can then be used to explain why the music like that and used that way. In addition, the music collected, transcribed and analyzed, but with an emphasis on its role as a "social creature behavior". Meanwhile, George List (1969: 195), a musicologist, defines ethnomusicology as a study of traditional music, such as music that developed orally (without writing) and always in the changes that take place continuously (flux). The fieldwork was conducted by the research and data collection in the context of music, but it is not necessary fully accepted the view that music should be studied solely as human behavior.5 In a field study of ethnomusicology, music must be written in one way or another , analyze the style and structure, and compare the results (music transcription) with musical concepts that exist in the musical culture of the community owner, if there.6 

Indeed, music can be studied as a means to solve the problem of non-musical. For example, Clark Wissler in his book about American Indians (1922: 155) argues that music is a culture that is very stable and therefore provides a useful way to determine the nature of the diffusion of culture, which other cultural traits need to be studied to arrive at the conclusion on the diffusion of music. This is a matter of focus. So the work of Alan P. Merriam's The Anthropology of Music (1964), is actually more to anthropology than a work of ethnomusicology. Because the focus is primarily concerned with human behavior in making and react to the music, not the material (product) of the music itself.7 

An ethnomusicologist Francis, namely Marcel Dubois (1965: 39) argues that the very open to ethnology ethnomusicology, although in fact ethnomusicology is a special specialization in field studies musicology. Ethnomusicology life studying music, consider the practice of their music in a wider scope, and it demonstrates the phenomenon of oral tradition. Ethnomusicology tried to put back the facts of music in their cultural context, based on the situation in their thoughts, actions and structure of a group of people and determine penggaruh reciprocity between one another, and compare it with the facts of each crosses several other groups of analogy individual or cultural level is not the same and association procedures in society.8 

Bruno Nettl (1964) suggests that defines ethnomusicology is not an easy job. Because there are differences among scholars of ethnomusicology itself: for those who have done, are doing, and what might have to be done. For practical purposes it can be said that the experts of ethnomusicology in the past has been studying music outside Western civilization, and to reach the smaller is the folk music of Europe, as they have done in an adjacent area between musicology and cultural anthropology at large. Musicology is defined as a field of scholarly and orientation concerning the study of all types of music and with a variety of approaches, which in fact has provided the largest contribution to the whole attention of the music of urban civilization (urban) in the Western world, which is inseparable from the tradition of writing Eropean music.9 

Musicology experts also believe that sometimes the music comes from (found in) the culture of other societies, which they view as a field study of ethnomusicology, which ethnomusicologists sometimes considered only as an expert certain kind of music, but at other times represent a relationship with the field of study another field of study to distinguish them. Anthropologists, especially those that focus on the study of culture, has confirmed that the entire culture of the world as a field of their power. But they actually have to spend much more time in their publications and is known as an expert cultures outside Western civilization. So experts ethnomusicology, whatever its definition for everything that happened, that has been done, on the one hand, is a musicology expert who investigated the  "exotic" music ('primitive') and on the other as an anthropologist investigating the music of other aspects of human culture beyond Western civilization.10 

Experts ethnomusicology has donated a parent disciplines of science, and they generally work based on the methods developed in musicology and cultural anthropology. Although relatively newly recognized importance of data ethnomusicology in music history, but has no role in the field of musicology in a broader sense. Needless to say, that the main contribution involving musicology experts are eager to understand all of the music, like all human music and even musical embodiment of the animal world. While psychologists music - and some former students who study music tribes as ethnic groups - also have a need to use the tools of other cultures to validate the they findings.11 

But experts musicology in the 20th century has increasingly become a specialist in Western music. Nine centuries ago, musicology experts may be more interested in the music world as a phenomenon rather than the students in the 20th century, which has found usefulness and the need to concentrate on the aspects of a very specific tradition of Western music. Although only perform a role, but the emergence of ethnomusicology might have made ​​some small contribution, by conducting special studies. The relationship between Western music with non-Western music together, music from the Near East, the musical tradition of the Jews, the music of India, and others, that all may strengthen the ties of Western music or urban music without writing, even better known in the sharing period history of folk music. European art music is often interchangeable with the folk music tradition which is at a geographical environment, and European influences from other continents that may have been more powerful than the known umurn. To evaluate the effects of this, as an illustration of musical motifs and how its origin, methods of ethnomusicology approach is a necessary tool. It may be mentioned one example of a widely used, studied the authenticity of the music polyfoni Europe, which is in the tradition of fine art, which until now assumed to come from the Middle Ages, including non-Western music which has an analogy or similarity polyfoni style medieval Europe. Also includes a knowledge of the style of music that might be affected Western Europe from the Middle Ages, and folk music (as they are now, and which may present later) to be expected there is a change of ideas and musical material. One example is quite prominent, which can be used to demonstrate the potential and services in the past ethnomusicology as the study of the history of Western music is a music polyfoni Middle Ages,.12  

The same thing can be made for the need of information about music in anthropology. Because music is a small part of the universal cultural phenomenon, then every population has some kind of music. Although variations in the style of the music world is vast, but there is quite homogeneous in musical behavior to make identification possible and simplicity of the music itself. Furthermore, it is the need of an anthropologist, if he is fully informed of a particular culture, thus also to know something about the behavior of human musical. In a variety of human culture, playing music is an important role in the life of cosmology, philosophy, and rites. In the field of anthropology, music often used as evidence to justify specific theories. The discovery E.M. von Hornbostel about tuning panpipe in Brazil - he thought the tuning was identical to that used in parts of the Oceania region, allegedly showed the presence of prehistoric cultural contact between these areas. In this case is a case, where the interpretation of the Hornbostel will again be controversial, and even become a classic example of the data in the presentation of musical ethnology.13 

Studying acculturation will give us an understanding of the result of intimate contact between neighboring cultures, which can be traced through the music (see Wachsmann 1961: 1, and Merriam 1955). Statistical data in cultural anthropology there are made by using musical phenomenon, which gives them the possibility easy to predict some aspects of culture such as religion, social organization, and others (see Merriam 1956). In addition, the possibility of a difference between the substance of music and musical styles, for example between the specific composition and characteristics of the music that they share with other parts in the repertory of their songs (see Chapter 6). Theory and research in ethnomusicology made ​​very deeply based on this fact. It was possible for an individual composition, for example, songs, moving from one culture to another and changed in the process, and it is possible to accentuate the style - the types of forms, scales, rhythm - moving from one culture to the other and superimposed on songs that already exist. Differences of this kind, which is more easily made in music and other arts in the culture, by anthropologists make music data from the use of a particular cultural phenomenon.14 

In a further development of ethnomusicology join more closed to the historical musicology and cultural anthropology. But when the experts are very different ethnomusicology in the definition of their field-definition and emphasis, perhaps no one would deny the importance of the relationship between musicology and cultural anthropology in the research activities. Ethnomusicology also play a role in the two courts, namely anthropology-folklore and linguistics. In real terms, the music in the oral tradition and is the parent of raw materials, an important part of the folklore, which includes aspects of culture are alive in the oral tradition itself, and in particular includes artistic creativity. And since music is a form of communication that is linked in some way to the language, ethnomusicology field can learn the music world, can zoom in and take the field of linguistics, which in this case languages ​​exist in the world needs to be studied, in particular studying the relationship between the words and singing tunes with both disciplines (musicology and cultural anthropology) in a unity that intact.15 

According to Usman Suhana, ethnomusicology is basically an interdisciplinary field that uses the device and the main approaches of cultural anthropology or ethnology and musicology. One can depart from anthropology musicology or ethnomusicology to be an expert. His approach can be shifted from ethnology to musicology or vice versa. If it is assumed that ethnomusicology as a field study, the goal is to music as part of the culture and society, general methods and techniques that are used come from the field of cultural anthropology. Although it is not widely recognized by ethnomusicologist, but in fact the theories that they use are generally derived from the social sciences and field research techniques borrowed from anthropology. In its development, ethnomusicology not limit itself only to the ethnological and or musicological approaches to cultural musical phenomenon, but also often uses linguistic approach, semantic, psychological, philosophical, historical, and humanities others, even physics, acoustics, multimedia technology , and others. Until recent years, the development of the study of ethnomusicology dominated by Europe and America. Never formed a kind of common image of the character of the European ethnomusicology considered more anthropological and / or functional theoretical, whereas in America are more likely practical. Nevertheless, the principle of the terminology of ethnomusicology itself has not changed. It is evident from the use of understanding the terminology used ethnomusicology, more or less since 1940, continued to show the knowledge of music outside the nation Erupean.16 

Historically it ethnomusicology emerged from the "fragments" comparative musicology. But in its development later, ethnomusicology has the scope, approach, and orientation significantly different from the comparative musicology.17 Ethnomusicology will not assess non-western music with standard western music. In other words, the non-Western music can only really be understood if it had been understood how non-Western societies are assessing their own music. Ethnocentric nature will appear when using the standard Western music to make an assessment of the non-western music, which has a proud heritage (cultural) music that is different from the West. So if the West tries to understand non-Western music by using knowledge (culture) of their own, they will most likely mistaken in describing the musical traditions of non-Western societies due to improper use of the approach, even even can lead to "bias". 

According to George Lis each approach, theoretical framework, or methods may be used if it proves it can help to better understand the phenomenon of music such as: models, paradigms, ethnoscience, cognitive processes, and semiotics. All knowledge is certainly useful, but before it is applied to a particular problem must first be considered critically. For example, if the use of a model can bring together two persitiwa that occur simultaneously, while in reality they do not have a significant relationship with each other? Therefore we must be careful when dealing with models that tend to change from time to time. However, any method or data derived from other disciplines or sources may be used if it helps in developing a better understanding of the humanity that produce sound patterns. This is actually the interdisciplinary character of ethnomusicology as a science.18 World attention on the music "exotic" ("weird") is characterized by the first appearance in Western literature in the 18th century in the book As Rousseau (Dictionnaire de Musique, 1768) introduced examples of Chinese music, Canadian-Indian and Finnish folk music. Various reports from the most nomadic at the time, and lately also the native songs, which sometimes provide musical notation, tends to be limited to its compatibility with the norms of Western Europe. Some serious work in the form of objective observation and analysis of music in the past has been visible in this period. In the British colonial period in India leads us to the writings of a British High Court judge William Jones in Calcutta, entitled On the musical modes of the Hindoos (1784). In Germany, the book was published under the title Ueber die der music inder (1802) translated by FB von Dalberg, the text and also attach additional examples. Other researchers Arniot namely Joseph, a missionary in China for many years, has managed to write a book I'lemoire Sur La Musique des Chinois, tant anciens que modernes (1779), which contains ancient Chinese treatise music. Writing this book was a "great job" are commendable. Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, ultimately resulting in a greater work called Description de l'Egupte, with 25 volumes (1809-1826). For the interests of ethnomusicology, particularly interesting are the parts of music, which according to Guillaume Andre Villoteau who has done research for half a year, based on three important parts, namely Memoire sur la musique de l'Egypte antique, De l'etat Actuel de l'art musical en Egypte, and Description historique, et Littéraire technique, des inst ~ uments de musique des orientaux. This finding may be said to be "free from prejudice West" .19 

In the 19th century, which is about 70 years ago, few people have studied the general western music. It is known from their reports on non-European music. Indeed, none of them reported that the well may be said even shallow, and their reports of non-European music was really bad. But there is one result of extraordinary fieldwork, which entitled the book received positive response FJ Fetishes are entitled Historie generale de la musique (1869). This book not only discusses the music of China, Japan and India, but also Kalmyks, Kirghis, Kamchadal and other peoples of Siberia. From the results of his research, Fetis see that the "history of music" is the "history of mankind", and therefore all the music people everywhere need to be investigated or may be research subject.20 

Scientific study of music began in 1880 This could be explored again on the limits of the scientific study of music ever made Adles Guido (1885), in which the science of music is divided into two main divisions, namely history and systematics. In the second part, after a three-branch base (theoretical, aesthetic and pedagogical) of the four main subjects, is musicology, where comparative musicology as an important part of the scope of musicology, gave the task to compare the products of sound (music) itself, especially folk song of a society, country and different territorial ethnographic final destination. During this, the followers of Carl Stumpt scholars studying music Rella Coola Indians were later published in British Columbia, the analysis using the notation of songs from a group of Indians who visited Germany in 1885 This is an important event21 in the scientific study of music. Two innovations in the field of technology is an important role of the research object of ethnomusicology, is the discovery gramaphone (1877) and the work of AJ Ellis, a psychologist and phonetics, with pitch and interval measurements are generated for change ratio used to describe the interval between arithmetic pitch in order to facilitate comparison. It is a division of equal tempered semitones into 100 equal parts, called "cent" (see article berhudul: "On the musical Scales of various nations", 1885). While gramaphone can repeat a performance of music that has been recorded, and using the "cent" is possible to make an exact comparison of the tonal different system.22 

J. Walter Fewkes was the person who first recorded "Passamaquoddy Indian" in Haine in 1890, then singing "Zuni" in New Hexico. Zuni chant recordings transcribed into Western notation by Benjamin Ives Gilman and published in the Journal of American Archaeology and Ethnology in 1891, while Carl Stumpt discuss it further and together with a partial translation of the article published in 1892, shows the relationship of science very internationally open at that time. Among the European nations earlier recording is Belai Tihar field in Hungary from 1896 and Evgeniya Linyova in Russia (1897) and so on (but in this case does not take into account recording activities in the downtown-city). Ponograf Edison cylindrical, with a particular repair tools, closely associated with its use before the year 1950, while the tape recorder is used in the field started earlier than 1950.23 

In a later development, manufacture carried back old recordings. Recordings are best made by phonogram-Archiv Vienna Academy, which was founded in 1899, and is fully active in 1901 The Musee Phonographique of Paris Societe d'Anthropologie was founded in 1900, when Carl Stumpt began collecting in 1900 which has led to establish Phonographique of Musicologi Institute Archiv Berlin in 1905, led by Erich von Hornbostel from 1905 to 1933 Head of Archive Berlin determined that the results of the collection was a center of research, including the results collected by Hornbostel very much the through correspondence and the work that has been helping collectors and scholars all over the world.24 

Before World War I, as the only known, that an extensive study in the American-Indian by anthropologists incorporate music recording activities as part of cultural documentation. Frans Boas is the earliest example of the record "Kwakiutl" Indians, at least about 1895; Livingstone Farrand Quilente and Quinault Indians (1898); Frank Speck of Greek and Yuchi Indians (1905); and Joseph K. Dixon of Crow (1908-9). All that and the other stored at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In this case, ethnomusicology as a discipline of science became famous after World War II, which arises from the Comparative Musicology "dust".25 

J. Walker Fewkes, a field recorder in 1890, later led the Bureau ethnology America "in Washington. The office also encourages recording field. Other centers perform a similar activity is "Field Museum of Natural History" in Chicago, "Peabody Huseum" at Harvard University, "Pennsylvania Museum" in Philadelphia, and the University of California at Berkeley.26 

A musical-ethnographic commission was established at the University of Moscow in 1901 his focus on making the recording and transcription as scientific knowledge, as well as the study of the Russian folk song and traditional music of other countries in the Russian Empire. Recording expeditions also carried out in Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, and among the Mongols, Yakut and other communities. Meanwhile, Vienna and Berlin Archive provides recorded music recorded while on an expedition to Africa, Asia and America. International relations among experts ethnomusicology maintained exclusively by Germans, and also by section Comprative Musicology of the International Musical Society, chaired by Hornbostel who participated in meetings in Vienna (1909), London (1911) and Paris (1914). 27 

Activity Archive Vienna after declining slightly in 1918, when it was developed at Berlin. In the USA, especially influenced by Frans Boas (Columbia Univeristy) and Edward Sapir (Yale University), where knowledge is more widely studied ethnomusicology is contained in the American-Indians and Eskimos (eg by Densmore, Helen H. Roberts, and George Herzog). Marius Barbeau, the national museum of Canada in Ottawa, Ontario, influenced by Frans Boas, in which Francis-Canadian folk music who studied have extended the amount of work. In Poland, two centers in extractive developed for recording folk music of Poland, while in Poznan led by Kaminski and in Warsaw led by Pulikowski, both of which are intentionally destroyed during World War II.28 

Ethnomusicology as a growing discipline of science after World War II from the "dust" Comparative Musicology, but now the other because of the dynamic developments that have played a major rule in the resurrection. For scholars of Western industrialized countries, small parts of the world can emerge more quickly and can be visited; to record sound, make films, and also appeared quickly repairs but the cost is more expensive than the previous.29 

During these few experts musicology lose patience with their servants in the study of the history of Western art music, which is based on written records. At the same time, some anthropologists have felt compelled to learn music as much as possible in the context of people's lives, and as a process (not cut and simplified, but never changed). "Society For Ethnomusicology" which was established in 1955, providing an opportunity for such enthusiasts-enthusiasts to discuss, and together with others, as well as publishing the journal Ethnomusicology. Conference-annual conference and the "Journal of the International Folk Music Council" (founded in 1949) provides an important forum, especially for workers experts ethnomusicology to other subjects. A small portion of students from schools Comparative Musicology in Berlin, who immigrated to the United States, plays an important role in the development of field studies in the Western Hemisphere, especially George Herzog, Nieczyslaw Kolinski, and later Klaus P. Wachsmann. While the ethnomusicologist Charles Seeger as an American who has a strong influence on the development of ethnomusicology in the USA.30 

Currently owned ethnomusicology collection has quite a lot, which is the material obtained from various sources, especially since World War II, where advances in technology play an important role and is so widely used. One of them is "portable tape-recorder", which is commercially available in parts of the Western world around the 1950s. Quite a lot of variations that can be used, where to operate only use a few batteries and easily obtained. Then came the possibility to synchronize "movie camera" and recording equipment. Polaroid camera soon appeared, and the 1970 Video Tape has been used as a recording device multi-chanel.31 

Before 1945 Hungary already has a cylinder and a vast collection of gramaphone and after the war found a number of collections of recorded music with a complete review of these types of songs, including songs lamen. In Poland, a systematic national collection carried out in the 1950s, totaling more than 65,000 forms of tape recordings of folk song and instrumental music. In Slovakia 110,000 songs and instrumental sounds collected in 1972, of which 80% dikoleksikan after 1950, which recorded more than 50,000 sound. Bulgaria recorded more than 100,000 songs and instrumental sounds in the field between 1955 and 1969 in Japan, "Japan Broadcasting Corporation" and others, using good equipment once, with a major recording program of traditional music, including folk music.32 

In Western industrialized countries, Easier Ethnomusicology has an opportunity to develop equipment, but they growing niche to work individually in a strange area (foreign) for them and work within the constraints of time is relative. They also growing niche to learn the culture of a community with a profuse, but it is not easy to do is because of the the culture under study was not so well known, but it is particularly subject important. In North America usually Studied Indian culture-South or North America or Africa or Asia tribal culture, or music high fineness Asia or the Middle East.Ahli-experts tend to study ethnomusicology British Africa, Francis (in addition to folk music experts Francis) in colony farmer Francis-Africa and in Brazil, Nepal, Southeast Asia and the islands of the West Pasifik.Jerman worked in Turkey, Greece, Rwanda, Sudan and the classical music India.Di mid-1970s to systematically collected music that Eskimos in Alaska, then in Canada is in the "Museum of Man" in Ottawa, the music of ethnic groups direkam. Noted need that although the traditional music of Asia, Africa and America intensively collected, but it turns out that all is still not well perceived enough.33 

Recording music accompanied by photographs, films and interviews (always recorded anyway) with the player and the listener or viewer. Dance and rituals studied using actively documentary. Labanotasi function is increasing as it is used for dance notation. The instruments were collected, and the performing arts filmmaking developed. Greater objectivity and accuracy, and more dokmentasi has been successfully created. Term "documentation" used here indicates the act of collecting traditional music available in the field, such as documents, which are available in printed form for a collection of music or recorders gramafone, also experienced spectacular progress since 1950.34 

Documentation of traditional music recorded in a long-play is an indispensable equipment for teaching and learning in ethnomusicology, which is specifically used fully in the delivery characteristics of the performing arts that can not be notated, such as vocal quality and pitch variation. For recorded music can be relatively short portrait style variations of songs, melodies, instruments and things.35 

Among the records reasonably good documentation published by non-commercial institutes, such as the Library of Congress in Washington, DC, Broadcasting Corporation of Japan, which is sponsored by the Musee de I 'Homme in Paris, a series broadcast by the Musee Royale de l'Afrique Centrale in Beruuren, Belgium, and published by Lur Völkerkunde Museum in West Berlin. Reference number of the series was made also by Hugh Tracey 's lI'1 The Sound of Africall, 210 long-play music and songs of RD from central, eastern and northern Africa. Some were quite good record documentation also broadcast commercial. There is material (ethnomusicology recordings for the entire world) is the latest, but not so good to be a reference, while recording the interview and informed article in the special journal.36 

Multi-volume collection is quite comprehensive folk music of one of the nation has been published. This can be seen in most of the article Bulgarian folk music, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Japan, Poland, Norway, Czechoslovia (Slovakia), TTSSR (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and Yugoslavia (Slovenia). Notation was made by transcribing music recordings, including the player's name, place, time recording and others; indication of variations and previous records written in a book (Greece, Poland). For musical instruments, as well as multi-series along the projected volume, began to be shown by Hanbuch der europaishen / Folksmusik instrumente in 1967 (edited by Fimsheimer and Stockmaun). Two volumes, namely Hungarian musical instruments, as well as Bohemia and Loravia, published by each organization according to some principles, which had been buried for use as a comparative science.37 

Transcription of traditional music into a visual notation valued as an essential task of the expert ethnomusicology. Vast quantity of raw material available for the study of ethnomusicology; recordings of good technical quality with extensive contextual material anyway. But music can only be compared or analyzed with substantial difficulty when determining a sound to be documented on a cylinder, disc, or tape. To begin the analysis needs to be listed in any record, comparing the features of some of the music, at least as a visuals reprensentasirequired.38 

However, poor transcription will result in the conversion into musical notation. First, transcription is subjective; hearing is not perceived or that all registers are dipertujukkan, is the same when a recording is played repeatedly, and sharpness of perception mentranskripsikannya individual who was varied as well. Secondly, the conventional Western notation is not created for the music of oral tradition (see Seeger 1958). Third, the visual notation not previously planned, including Western notation with "special signs for pitch-pitch non-conventional and others, can bring (deliver) the original sound quality, especially the behavior of the vocal style", instrumental, and so on.39 

For a while, it can be satisfied by saying that the problem can now be overcome with the use of electro-acoustic instrument to the completion of the work of scholars, such as oscillograf, sonagraf and melograf. Melograf model 'C' of Charles Darwin can analyze and demonstrate (and provide a permanent chart of a particular recording) music for 30 minutes continuously. Such a device is an electronic sound analyzer tool that can generate a graph that filmed footage of the pitch, amplitude and spectrum simultaneously (see melograf). At the University of California at Los Angeles, melograf model 'C' can be used to study (for example) and the vocal pitch ambitus voice, vocal vibrato and vocal ornamentation in a specific musical tradition. Valuable research can be done using sonagraf and other instruments on phonogramm-Archiv in Vienna. Variations instrument resembling melograf Seeger used and exploited in Budapest, Bratislava, Tallium and Berlin, and the pioneer work with the same equipment and taken to Norway, Sweden and Israel.40 

Although these instruments objective, but there are also disadvantages imformasi available, and the types of materials that can not be described certain. On the one hand, the equipment can provide imformasi more than necessary, but on the other hand, only the solo melody that can be analyzed with melograf model 'C'. Polyphony music, instrumental ensemble, two people who previously could not sing along dikendalikan.41 

A fundamental issue is to balance the subjectivity and human hearing (one of the two can be refined) with objectivity electronic instruments, which felt more objective than the hearing and also felt that the hearing can not be marked. Of course transcription should be based on what is perceived by hearing, but keep rocks from the instrument for certain things such as pitch-pitch that is not fixed where our hearing is not trained to know.42 

This leads us to the next basic problem: pentranskripsi where the target is to denote what is essential to have a specific reason. How does one know which is which (which is essential)? In connection with this, which is to choose between a very detailed notation and notation similar framework (both used by Bartok for Serbo-Croatian folk song, 1951). It is associated with a form of folk music of Europe, where the researchers knew a tradition of music very well, talking about the language, and have extensive material for comparison with the tradition, in which a norm can be determined in advance on the same material, is an oral tradition which is based on variations (see Soibieska 1964). It becomes more difficult when a worker outside with researching an unfamiliar culture, to a limited period, the collection is only done on the part of the musical tradition and in no way can make sure all the performances are natural and what is collected is level music representative. The difficulty that arises later when the penstranskripsi of recording did not participate in the fieldwork. In this case, it can only denote what he heard from the tape, so that it is not possible to know the players or singers who convey meaning. When the researchers were unable to determine a "hierarchy of musical values​​" (List 1963) of imforman-imforman in the culture, he tried to find things that are relatively important: such variations style elements on the basis of the frequency of daily events and of their stability somewhat varied. Furthermore, it may be "safe" when treated with a material that is relatively unusual to make detailed transcription.43 

Bruno Nettl (1975) once said that the transcription had not previously considered important as it is now formally considered. Past consideration of all the pros and cons discussed above (see especially Stockmann 1966 and MGG), then some visual representation of traditional music required for analysis and comparison. And after a decade or more of their work with sonagraf, melograf and other instruments, ethnomusicology professional experts tend to like an adaptation of the conventional notation to use graphs. Although the current system is not so perfect, but a particular purpose still fully into consideration.44 

The entire expert ethnomusicology, is dedicated to the study of music in culture or not, in the end needed to describe the music they are learning, try to find the underlying characteristics, and in some ways comparing it with others, maybe put it together, inter-cultures. Among the elements studied in the solo vocal music is melodic range, Kantur, intervals and ornamentation; meter and rhythm; tempo; scales (modes) and the final tone; and vocal style. Part singing and instrumental music also tested and added to the relations between its parts, the vertical interval patterns and patterns kadensa. Studying musical instruments, which includes pitch-pitch that can be played (such as pressing studying old museum) but, on the whole, the music itself is traditionally played with instruments. Music and dance are also analyzed as above, but must be connected to the dance itself. The same truth with music that is part of a ritual.45 

In Europe, experts working in Central and Eastern Europe since 1964 at the International Folk Music Council Study Group in terms of "analysis" and "systematic folk music" with training methods for the classification of folk melodies, has been using a variation-varlasi arkaif nationwide, with a view they may be able to apply to the type of international catalogs. At the same time they are developing methods of complex analysis and coordinate experiments with the use of methods of data-processing electronics (this is not used for the materials of folk music in Budapest, Prague, Brno, Bratislava, Berlin, and Scandinavia) . The end goal is possible to make a systematic comparison of the entire folk music of Europe after overcoming some obstacles.46 

In addition to the group's search for international solutions to the public interest, they are also interested in North American studies perbandingan.Di at the Museum of Man in Canada, a computer is used to perform the analysis of large collections of folk music it.But is an extraordinary activity in the hemisphere west, although Benjamin Suchoff active in the development of computer systems for music index tradisional.47 for practical purposes it can be said that most of the experts ethnomusicology dealing with three types of musik.Kategori first, based on the characteristics of the field and its history, is the music of non-public non-community literatur.Bahasa literature does not develop a system of reading and tulisan.Sachs (1962) incorporate this object - as is done by some other scholars - because he realized that the presence or absence of the "illiteracy" is not a determining factor the existence of a large difference between the types kebudayaan.Dalam this case, the category of those non-literature including American Indians, Negro-African, Australian Aboriginal, and some tribal societies throughout Asia.Kebudayaan-cultures are largely called "primitive", but the term "primitive" can not be used due to the use of the term it means that they are closed to the initial levels in human history (which can not be proven as long as the culture), or if said as a "society very simple "is actually inaccurate as well as some non-literary cultures have a very complex social systems, elaborate rituals, arts, such as music and a musical style that is very closely related to customs mereka.Di addition, community members who have a non-literary master world languages ​​such as English (which is the growing number of individuals) can be understood if they are not happy to be linked to the "primitive" in the literatur.Selanjutnya, the term "primitive" gradually disappeared from literature of anthropology and ethnomusicology, the dam was replaced with the use of the term "praliteratur", but this term is still associated with "illiteracy" .Term "tribal" is also used, but it is difficult to interpret because it meant a kind of social and political structures that are very specific, while not all non-literary culture memilikinya.Jika a tribal culture does not have an organization, perhaps the music is still included in the discussion of the material, where the shortcomings just because it does not have a tradition of any tulisan.Begitu, culture defines "tribal" remains difficult dilakukan.Istilah other, ie "non-literature", though it seems tedious but can be compared to the shorter term and life-like "tribal" and "primitive", which seems to be a descriptive of human group closely related to the field of ethnomusicology.48 

The second category of music that is always included in the scope of ethnomusicology is the high culture of North Africa, Asia (China, Japan, Java, Bali, Southwest Asia, India, Iran), and Arab.Ada speaking countries culture that has a musical analogy trained in many respects to that of Western civilization, characterized by a real hassle in style, by the development of a level of professional musicians, as well as music theory and cultural notasi.Pemilik it for several centuries have written about music that might make a historical approach same as the actual music history Eropah.Namun none of those countries that can use a similar system of musical notation and explicit complex with the West, and the music of life in urban areas, mostly in the field of oral tradition in which each individual learn music by listening and teach without notasi.Selanjutnya tradition has always been difficult to delineate a clear boundary between musical cultures of non-literary and high culture oriental.Terakhir Kunst said "traditional" (Kunst 1959: 1), and ethnomusicology literature, it yourselves without deepening to a classification, a simple way to broad areas of culture such as "oriental" is. 49 

The third category - and this one is not generally accepted by scholars of ethnomusicology - is folk music, which may be defined as an oral tradition of music that is in the areas dominated by the culture of Western civilization tinggi.Selanjutnya not only states but also Asia like Japan China, and others, have folk music, but of course that in the Western world it plays a very large role in the penelitian.Musik people generally distinguished from community music literature by non-trained approaches the form with changes in the material and by the influence of music was great.It distinguished trained or urban or 'fine art music' by reliance on oral tradition better than written notation, and, generally, by its existence outside institutions such as churches, schools or pemerintah.Dan was accepted to be part of ethnomusicology by some scholars as the style-style that, although linked to the Western art music, is sufficient to allow the distinction between classified in diversity, a manifestation of "exotic" music which is the core form of ethnomusicology.50 

Mieczyslaw Kolinski occupy a special place in the field of ethnomusicology studies in America as a living in the music world. He developed a classification of tonal structure and the methods of analysis of the structure of melodic movement, all can be used for the music of non-European. But on the other hand, Seeger (1951: 242) warns that: "... in the forecasts of distortion on the music may be expected in the maintenance arkaif discuss music ... a large number of analyzes as above as opposed to synthetic, as opposed to events process, as a result of the above tradition, as opposed to the structure functions, static as opposed to dynamic ".51 

Through the writings and discussions, he made America ethnomusicology experts wary of static analysis of musical events (for example see Herndon 1974), and there recently he has been trying to work out an approach to musical knowledge within a culture, which seems totally at odds with the leaders, opposing what is done by Kolinski.52 

Around 1970, the attention devoted to the music as a form of communication or a communication system, which seems to be growing and is called "Semiotics" or "Semiologie Musicale". Among the field were mentioned by definition Natties (1974) is a discipline which tries to use linguistic models in the analysis of music, or studying music as a system of signs, with two types of research, namely the system of notation (semiografi), and the other is intended to propose a "musical phenomenon" (musical semantics), see for example boiles (1967 and 1973). Certainty of the concepts, principles, and methods of linguistic structure can be applied, and the investigation of generative grammar publish musical interests of ethnomusicology experts (for example see blacking, 1971; Field, 1974). In connection with the symbolism of music, as noted above, were also investigated in particular by the German scholar Marius Schneider and Werner Danckert, in conjunction with magic, worship and ceremony ritual.53 

More intensively studied music in the cultural or social context will be led to or led to non-literature community or tribal, village farmers or rural border areas (urban). American-Indian tribal monographs (see McAllester 1954; Merriam 1967; Nettl 1967-8) describe the behavior patterns of the native peoples music, music functions, data collection by the missionaries and the writings in the form of another report on the history of tribal and community life, and incorporate transcription -transkripsi music, a music that seems to formal analysis, and a comparison with some styles of music other Indian-Americans. McAllester gave special attention to the cultural values ​​obtained from the Navajo informants, as confirmed in their music. In Europe, they have a good study of the music of peasant villages: in Romania (Brailoiu 1960, first before the war), Belo Russia (Mozheyko 1971), West Germany (Klusen 1941 and 1970), and of the characteristics areas, such as in the Northeast Germany (Stockmann 1962) and in Slovenia (Kumer 1968). Moreover, Brailoiu is particularly interested to sociological data from the repertoire-repertoire, different age groups in the repertoire of music in relation to the job (position), and so on. Stockmann studying an area, Altmark, which is a remarkable accuracy in the collection were made ​​a century earlier, in a dish of synchronic and diachronic analysis of the combination; his book is a model for Mozheyko and Kumer.54 

For Africa, Hugo Zemp (1971) work on communities "and" Ivory coast as a place of instrumental music performance, music and ideas in the social life of the community; but it was not the music. In contrast, in the book of John blacking on "Venda" (1967) in the northern Transvaal contains some text and music as well as incredible detail about how children's relationships with nyanyan-singing. Elsewhere blacking advocated description of the background music and music culture itself as related parts of a total system; in his opinion, unless they connect, will remain a bit of ethnomusicology at a "meeting area" to the attention of the field of anthropology and music from cultures different.55 

An approach contrasts rather sharply in the community, Lomax set up in the project "Cantometrics". Stimulation in the study of this style of singing performances, recording songs analyzed sample of more than 200 culture, and after analyzed were coded with a computer, where the data used are ethnographic facts from these cultures to a computerized study that attempts to connect between properties of musical and cultural properties, in particular investigate whether the patterns of music was definitely in touch regularly with the stage of culture that is certainly very complex. Indeed it shows some properties of the singing performances, shows a strong relationship to the privilege of the social structures that govern interactions in all cultures (Lomax 1968). "Cantometrics Project" doing more extensive systematic comparison of the traditional music from all parts of the world. But it uses a simple restriction of the music, and the arbitrary juxtaposition of cultural data and the data dimension of the musical without the participation of field work, so that means it is a discovery that requires more testing further.56 

Seeger emphasized the importance of learning standard criticism of other people and approach the music with their own canon, not the other (EM, iii, 1959: 102). By using this principle, as a pioneer Hood ethnomusicology program at the University of California at Los Angeles (1954-74) emphasizes practical training of students in a variety of styles and performances of non-Western music, including Gamelan ensembles of Java, Bali, China, Japan, Ghanaian and other instruments. All teachers are artists (artists) from non-Western countries are. Hood himself is an expert plays fiddle Java (spike fiddle). With the breaking barriers between musicians and musical West coach non-West, Hood filed a number of ways to intense interest in the non-Western music. Among assumption Western listeners to mitigate them, as shown Hood, is pitch perfect West, which is "in the world ... the fact is sound mikrotone imperpect a sense of pitch" (1960; 56). The emphasis on this performance criticized, such as not need to be guided by superior skill in the analysis of music. But goodness is, in contradiction with the proposed odyssey studying a specifically musical differences through language but should not be guided from the original artists (native). Classes in the non-western music performances now proposed at any American university, the proposed ethnomusicology and the students showed their interest in learning passionate.57 

New categories of interest in ethnomusicology experts relative is change or acculturation, which some time approached sociology and some time in history. One important principle that the traditional, always without writing music, which with its authenticity, is change.58 

This principle indicates that music is connected with a community isolation, diassosiasikan music with ritual or magic, is not automatically assumed to go back to thousands of years ago, to be a "pure" (pure), without change, without being influenced by other cultures or communities. Ethnomusicology Soviet experts, Zemtsovsky, look at it as follows: "in every era of history, music older or younger living with the music changed, along with new music dikreasikan on two types of basic forms. In one form, the form they are also called traditional folk music "(1974; 272). With this more flexible attitude towards change, and draw in the music as a process, research is also devoted to the so-called "urban Ethnomusicology", which should do a study on urban and rural relationships (for example, in the Near East) and the strong influence of adaptation and transformation of certain foreign influences (eg High life in Ghana). This section tends to represent a return to the history of music, with the expansion of the sociological dimension. And on the other hand, the variation of the study, or variations of a traditional music, perhaps more appreciated as a stressed attention musicology (although the beginning of fieldwork requires extensive skill). Studying the variation can be developed with extensive improvements by Brailoui (1973) .59 

Historical dimension is fundamental to some degree in the study of folk music (in particular for German scholar Walter Wiora, and coupled to special experts of European folk music and ethnomusicology experts). Especially expert questions about the evolution of music in particular demand experts Comparative Musicology earlier, like Stumpf and Hornbostel. The evolution of musical instruments, such as the rise and evolution of music, never ceases to amaze Curt Sachs. In an out line by Wiora (MGG) of sub-division of ethnomusicology (a term which he refused, instead using the term "musikaliche Volks und Völkerkunde," musical folk lore and musical ethnology "), he always discussed in the perspective of history, under kateori music non-literary society, where the music may be more primitive and more advanced, when he noted that the music of high culture oriental collapsed among the non-literary and ethnographic history of music, there is for palaces growing literature, some of them can be recorded, and oriental music is linked also to the musical heritage of Rome and Yunani.60 

Since the emergence of ethnomusicology as a discipline of science, the field of ethnomusicology field studies have been debated by experts in a fairly long time span. Some authors argue that the field of ethnomusicology study is: "ethnic music"; "Traditional music"; "Music as culture"; "music made ​​man"; "Music of a human society" who lived from ancient times to the present, and others. Likewise, they agreed that ethnomusicology is a discipline of science that studies the "music", and even the definition of "music" itself is still debatable, but agreed that the "music" contains some basic elements include: tone (pitch) and / or rhythm (rhythm). In this case, because the fundamental concepts of the "tone" and "rhythm" is likely to differ from one community to other communities, then ideally the "music" that is created as a result of the creativity of a community group that should be studied in the context of cultural society holistically concerned. 

Gandoang, August 17, 2014 

End Note 

1. Sadit Stanley (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980). Henceforth, the term Ethnomusicology (English) written in Indonesian, which ethnomusicology; 

2. Bruno Nettl define folk music as a living oral tradition of music in the area dominated by the "high culture". In other words, not just folk music live in Europe and America, but also the music of Asian high culture whose existence has been recognized. Bruno Nettl, Chapter I: Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology, (New York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 7; 

3. Sadit Stanley (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980). May be added that at the beginning of its development, ethnomusicology is a discipline that emerged in Europe in the early 20th century. Expansion of European nations around the world have been shocked to their attention that the nations that apparently regarded as a primitive nation outside of Europe, it also has a culture.Namun, dengan sempitnya persepsi dan sikap superiornya, mereka memandang kebudayaan di luar diri mereka dikategorikan sebagai bangsa-bangsa budaya non-Eropa, yang hanya menarik untuk dipelajari dari sudut pandang antropologi, sosiologi, etnologi, dan sebagainya sehingga tidak menarik untuk diakui pada tingkat kebudayaan dan ilmunya.Selanjutnya ilmu pengetahuan baru ini semula diberikan dengan berbagai sebutan, misalnya antropologi musik, etnologi musik, dan musik folklor atau bahkan folklor saja.Lihat Usman Suhana, “Etnomusikologi dan Kontribusinya”, Pikiran Rakyat, 1 September 2007;

4. Stanley Sadit (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980);

5. Ibid.Lihat juga Mantle Hood yang mengatakan bahwa bahwa “satu point yang jelas: subjek dari studi lapangan etnomusikologi adalah musik”.Matle Hood, The Ethnomusicologist, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), hal.3. 

6. George List, “Ethnomusicology: A Discipline Defined”, dalam Ethnomusicology, (Society for Ethnomusicology, Inc., January 1979), hal.4-7;

7. Ibid;

8. Stanley Sadit (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980);

9. Bruno Nettl, Op.Cit., hal.7;

10. Ibid;

11. Ibid;

12. Ibid;

13. Ibid;

14. Ibid;

15. Ibid;

16. Usman Suhana, “Etnomusikologi dan Kontribusinya”, Pikiran Rakyat, 01 September 2007;

17. Dalam dekade terakhir, etnomusikologi telah menglami kemajuan dengan cara yang cukup mencolok.Dari tahun 1960 hingga 1980, etnomusikologi berjuang untuk mempertahankan identitasnya dan berdampingan dengan musikologi yang dipandang lebih mapan.Etnomusikologi sering terpinggirkan di kalangan akademik sebagai studi tentang eksotis (aneh), musik non-Barat atau Dunia Ketiga, tetapi akhirnya mulai dapat mengejar dan bahkan kemudian melampaui musikologi dalam dua cara: (1) ideologis, bergelut dengan realitas budaya dan musik sebagai fenomena global;(2) metodologis, menggunakan berbagai teknik yang berasal dari fertilisasi lintas disiplin ilmu.James Porter, “New Perspectives in Ethnomusicology: A Critical Survey”, http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/index.htm 

18. George List, Op.Cit., hal.7;

19. Stanley Sadit (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980);

20. Ibid;

21. Ibid;

22. Ibid;

23. Ibid;

24. Ibid;

25. Ibid;

26. Ibid;

27. Ibid;

28. Ibid;

29. Ibid;

30. Ibid;

31. Ibid;

32. Ibid;

33. Ibid;
34. Ibid;

35. Ibid;
36. Ibid;

37. Ibid;

38. Ibid;

39. Ibid;

40. Ibid;

41. Ibid;

42. Ibid;

43. Ibid;

44. Ibid;

45. Ibid;

46. Ibid;

47. Ibid;

48. Bruno Nettl, Chapter I: Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology, (New York: The Free Press, 1964);

49. Ibid;

50. Ibid;

51. Stanley Sadit (ed), Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (Macmillon, 1980);

52. Ibid;

53  Ibid;

54. Ibid;

55. Ibid;

56. Ibid;

57. Ibid;

58. Ibid;

59. Ibid;

60. Ibid.

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